Recent research in the social developmental and clinical literatures has revealed a predisposition for some individuals to solicit "negative feedback and criticism from others surrounded by close interpersonal relationships. In the clinical literature, " negative feedback-seeking" is considered to be a potential predictor of depressive symptoms, though this have been studied almost exclusively among adults (e.g., Joiner, 1995). Recent work in the developmental literature suggests that feedback-seeking also may own important implication for identity development and the formation of an adaptive self-concept (Cassidy, Ziv, Mehta, & Feeney, 2003). Although both literatures proffer complementary perspectives, a hypothetical and empirical integration of these ideas previously have not been offered.
Feedback-seeking behavior commonly is interpreted through the perspective of self-verification theory. The makeshift premise underlying self-verification theory (Swann, 1983, 1987, 1990), which extant research findings support, is that individuals aim to maintain " cognitive consistency" by selectively soliciting (Cassidy et al., 2003; Giesler, Josephs, & Swann, 1996; Swann & Read, 1981a, 1981b; Swann, Wenzlaff, Krull, & Pelham, 1992; Swann, Wenzlaff, & Tafarodi, 1992), attending to (Swann & Read, 1981a), recall (Swann & Read, 1981a), and believing (Swann, Griffin, Predmore, & Gaines, 1987) feedback from others that confirms their self-concept (Joiner, 1995). From a developmental perspective, this behavior also likely servesmultiple functions that are relevant to the transition to youth. Feedback-seeking is consistent with youths' normative developmental predilection to utilize interpersonal experiences as a reflected appraisal of self-worth (Felson, 1985). This behavior also offer specific opportunities for youth to solicit self-relevant information from valued others in the peer context, reflecting and contributing to increases in the frequency and level of peer interactions during adolescence (Buhrmester & Furman, 1987). The goal of feedback-seeking also are relevant to self-development tasks that are central to youth. Presumably, youth who have established the rudiments of a positive self-concept will be most imagined to process social information and solicit interpersonal responses from others in a manner that continues to confirm and enhance their favorable self-image.
However, clinical science have suggested important individual differences in feedback-seeking, suggesting that aberration in this regular developmental behavior may be indicative of maladaptive developmental processes and may present risks for the onset or exacerbation of depressive symptoms. Specifically, it have been hypothesized that the stipulation for cognitive consistency is retained even when individuals possess a negative self-concept (Joiner, 1995; c.f., Alloy & Lipman, 1992; Hooley & Richters, 1992). Individuals next to low self-concepts or depression thus will be likely to absorb in interpersonal behaviors that are aimed to verify denial self-beliefs and may contribute to negative interpersonal interactions. Some empirical support have amassed to support these ideas. Findings indicate that adults next to a negative self-concept report high levels of relationship self-righteousness when relationships are self-verifying (i.e., negative feedback is provided) than when individuals' distrustful self-concept is challenged (Swann, Hixon, & de la Ronde, 1992; Swann, Wenzlaff, Krull, 1992). Research also suggests that individuals beside negative self-concepts prove right partner choice in an interaction favour based on self-verification concerns (Swann, Stein-Seroussi, & Giesler, 1992), lend preliminary support to the idea that the acceptance of feedback consistent with an individual's self-concept is defining even for individuals with low self-concepts. These accepted wisdom have influential, yet previously untested implication for understanding maladaptive nouns in adolescents.
The current study be designed to examine three study hypotheses. First, we examined whether adolescents' depressive symptoms indeed were associated prospectively beside a tendency to solicit gloomy feedback about themselves. A reciprocal, longitudinal association be predicted as a second hypothesis suggesting that adolescents' negative feedback-seeking would be associated longitudinally beside later depressive symptoms. Third, it be hypothesized that negative feedback-seeking would be associated prospectively next to declines surrounded by adolescents' group and dyadic peer relations. In addition, we attempted to evaluate the symptom specificity of cynical feedback-seeking by examining discriminant associations with social anxiety. The exoneration for each study hypothesis is discussed below.
The current longitudinal study offered an big opportunity to examine feedback-seeking behavior among adolescents. A first hypothesis reflected thoughtful predictions regarding depressive symptoms as a predictor of glum feedback-seeking. Although past studies enjoy revealed concurrent associations between negative feedback-seeking and depressive symptoms (Cassidy et al., 2003; Joiner, Katz, & Lew, 1997; Swann, Wenzlaff, Krull, 1992; Swann, Wenzlaff, & Tafarodi, 1992), no longitudinal facts are currently available to indicate that depressive symptoms are associated prospectively with increases in unenthusiastic feedback-seeking over time. Thus, an initial goal of this longitudinal study be to examine depressive symptoms as a predictor of adolescents' negative feedback-seeking. To examine developmental change, this hypothesis was examined among youth at the launch of the adolescent transition over approximately a 1-year interval.
Second, because individuals who engage within negative feedback-seeking will be involved in interpersonal relationships that may ultimately verbs information to verify their negative self-concept, glum feedback-seeking should be associated longitudinally with an exacerbation of depressive symptoms. Prior investigations examining gloomy feedback-seeking as a prospective predictor of depressive symptoms have be conducted almost exclusively among adults, yielding mixed support. In short-term longitudinal studies (e.g., 5 weeks), no basic effect of negative feedback-seeking on next depressive symptoms has be revealed (Joiner, 1995; Pettit & Joiner, 2001a, 2001b); however, there is some evidence to suggest that unenthusiastic feedback-seeking may be associated longitudinally with adults' depressive symptoms when combined near negative experiences (e.g., interpersonal rejection, Joiner, 1995; poor pedantic performance, Pettit & Joiner, 2001a).
No longer-term longitudinal studies of cynical feedback-seeking have be reported nor has prior longitudinal work be conducted with adolescents. Cross-sectional examinations hold revealed associations between negative feedback-seeking and depressive symptoms in both community-based (Cassidy et al., 2003) and psychiatric inpatient sample of youth (Joiner et al., 1997). Thus, a second goal of the current study be to examine the longitudinal association between negative feedback-seeking and subsequent depressive symptoms among adolescents. Negative feedback may hold particularly potent implication for adolescent depressive symptoms, especially when feedback pertains to attributes that are relevant to values at this developmental stage, such as nouns and relational self-worth (Harter, Waters, & Whitesell, 1998). Associations were examined over the course of a 1-year time interval in consideration of the relatively stable peer environment and duration of time needed to appropriation changes within social-psychological functioning within this youngster cohort.
Based on research suggesting a greater prevalence of depressive symptoms and greater reactivity to interpersonal stressors among girls, gender be examined as a moderator of the association between negative feedback-seeking and depressive symptoms (Nolen- Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994; Rudolph, 2002). No prior study among youth or adults have examined gender as a potential moderator of longitudinal associations between feedback-seeking and depressive symptoms.
Third, it be anticipated that negative feedback-seeking might enjoy deleterious and ironic implications for the trait of interpersonal relationships and the way within which individuals are perceived by others. Although negative feedback-seeking offer individuals verification of their self-concept, it also promotes a dynamic within which negative or critical interpersonal feedback is communicated inside a relationship. This may have central implications for interpersonal functioning, as economically as further indirect consequences for depression and self-concept. Thus, a third goal of this investigation be to offer background on the potential interpersonal consequences of negative feedback-seeking. Specifically, this study examined whether glum feedback-seeking behavior predicted adolescents' perceptions of the standard of their best friendship after controlling for associations with depressive symptoms. Friendship talent was examined to copy the interpersonal context in which glum feedback behavior is most likely to come about. Specifically, adolescents' perceptions of criticism inside their best friendship were examined in fluffy of past findings in connection with the importance of perceived criticism as the single best predictor of depression relapse among adults (Hooley & Teasdale, 1989).
Negative feedback-seeking also may be associated near peer relations at the group level. Specifically, adolescents who absorb in distrustful interpersonal behaviors such as negative feedback-seeking may be smaller amount well like by peers and experience higher level of peer rejection over time. Using peer-reported measures of peer acceptance/rejection, this hypothesis also was examined longitudinally here study.
In addition to the nouns of these three main hypotheses, a fourth aim of this investigation was to address the specificity of associations among cynical feedback-seeking, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms. A predominant critique within this literature have been the assertion that unenthusiastic feedback-seeking may simply represent a manifestation of anxiety symptoms (e.g., Joiner et al., 1997). In support of this argument, a substantial body of research suggests not only that depressive and anxiety symptoms recurrently co-occur (e.g., Kovacs, 1996), but also that anxiety may be a developmental precursor to depressive symptoms during the adolescent transition (Reinherz, Stewart-Berghauer, Pakiz, & Frost, 1989; Rohde, Lewinsohn, & Seeley, 1991). Thus, it may be that extremely rare associations between negative feedback-seeking and depressive symptoms are merely mimicking established associations between symptoms of depression and anxiety, to some extent than elucidating a creative interpersonal mechanism of depression.
Thus, as a conservative assessment of the association between depressive symptoms and negative feedback-seeking, adolescents' symptoms of social anxiety be controlled in adjectives analyses. Social anxiety was elected based on conceptual overlap pertaining to interpersonal concerns. Recent research also suggests that social anxiety is potential distinct from other anxiety difficulties and appears to be most strongly related to depression (Krueger, 1999; Lahey et al., 2004; Mineka Watson, and Clark, 1998; Vollebergh et al., 2001).
The hypotheses examined in the current investigation primarily utilized adolescents' own reports of their behaviors, symptoms, and perceptions of relationships. To proposition a stringent examination of study hypotheses, it be important to consider that adjectives effects of negative feedback-seeking might represent an actual effect of adolescents' low self-esteem to some extent than these unique interpersonal behaviors. Thus, and also to the covariates mentioned above, adolescents' global self-worth be controlled in analyses for respectively study hypothesis.
METHOD
Participants
Participants included 478 students (51% female) in grades 6 (33.3%), 7 (30.3%), and 8 (36.4%). All participants be between the ages of 11 and 14 years, M = 12.70, SD = 0.95. The students were recruit from a suburban middle-class middle school. According to conservatory records, 11% of the children qualified for free or reduced-price lunch. The ethnic composition of the indication was 87% Caucasian-American, 4% Asian-American, 2% African-American, 2% Latino-American, and 6% from multi-ethnic background.
Participants were examined at two time points approximately 11 months apart. All sixth to eighth echelon students attending the middle school at Time 1 be recruited for contribution in the study. Consent forms be returned by 92% (n = 784) of families; of these, 80% of parents give consent for their child's participation (n = 627, 74% of total recruit population). Data were missing from a total of 44 students, due to absenteeism (n = 10), incomplete responses (n = 30), and refusal to contribute (n = 4). The final sample as a result included 580 participants at Time 1.Of these, a total of 478 (83%) participant were available for conducting tests 11 months later (i.e., Time 2). Study attrition be due to relocation (n = 36), incomplete data (n = 54), absenteeism (n = 7), and refusal to verbs with the study (n = 5). Attrition analyses revealed no significant differences on study variables between participant with and in need available data at Time 2.Hypotheses be examined for participants near complete data for adjectives study variables (n = 478) in the current investigation.
Measures
Negative Feedback-Seeking
The Feedback-Seeking Questionnaire (Swann et al., 1992), modified by Joiner and colleagues (1997) for use beside adolescents and children, presents respondents with four list of questions corresponding to four domains of self-worth (i.e., social competency, erudite competency, athletic skills, and physical attractiveness). Each list includes four question; two of these are worded as solicitations of positive feedback (e.g., "Am I fun to hang around beside?") and two are worded as solicitations of negative feedback (e.g., "My facade looks sort of ugly, don't you have an idea that?"). An individual's score on the FSQ is equal to the number of negatively phrased question endorsed.
The adult and young person versions of the FSQ enjoy been used contained by many prior studies of feedback-seeking (e.g., Joiner, 1995; Joiner, Alfano, and Metalsky, 1993; Joiner et al., 1997; Pettit & Joiner, 2001a, 2001b). Construct acceptability has be supported in former research through significant correlations with feedback-seeking behavior in experimental conditions and beside responses on instruments assessing self-concept (Swann, Pelham, & Krull, 1989; Swann & Read, 1981a; Swann et al., 1992). In the current study, adolescents' responses on the FSQ also were significantly associated beside adolescents' global self-worth, Time 1 r = .34; Time 2 r = .38, ps < .0001, and interitem correlations inside self-worth domains ranged from .36 to .68 at Time 1 and Time 2. Internal consistency occasionally is reported for the FSQ (e.g., Joiner et al., 1997) because, like some measures of attributional style (e.g., Children's Attributional Style Questionnaire; Thompson, Kaslow, Weiss, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), the FSQ offer a screening of cross-domain feedback-seeking behavior and it is theoretically expected that this behavior is domain-specific. Similar to historic research that has revealed alphas contained by the moderate range (i.e., between .63 and .68; Joiner et al., 1993, 1997), internal consistency in the current study be modest (.51 and .53 at Times 1 and 2). Results also revealed moderate test-retest stability in this example (r = .40, p < .001).
Depression
The Children's Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1992) consists of 27-items designed to assess the behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and physiological features of depression. Participants choose one of three statements that best describes their symptoms over the recent past 2 weeks (e.g., "I am sad once surrounded by awhile, "I am sad several times," and "I am sad adjectives the time"). Responses are coded on a scale of 0-2, beside higher score indicating more severe depressive symptoms. The psychometric properties of the CDI have be reported in historic work (Kovacs, 1992; Saylor, Finch, Spirito, & Bennett, 1984). Internal consistency in this taster was average ([alpha] = .88 at both time points).
Social Anxiety
The Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A; La Greca & Lopez, 1998), adapted from the Social Anxiety Scale for Children-Revised (La Greca & Stone, 1993), was designed to assess adolescents' subjective experience of social anxiety. The calculate consists of 22 statements, including 18 social anxiety items (i.e., "It's easy for me to fashion friends") and four filler items (i.e., "I like to draw"). The items are rate on a 5-point Likert scale (i.e., 1 = "not at all"; 5 = "all the time"). La Greca and colleagues enjoy provided data to support the psychometric properties of the SASC-R and SAS-A (La Greca & Lopez, 1998; La Greca & Stone, 1993). Internal consistency of the SAS-A contained by this sample be high ([alpha]s = .93 at both time points).
Global Self-Worth
The self-perception profile for adolescents (SPPA; Harter, 1988) assesses adolescents' judgment of competence or adequacy surrounded by different areas of self-concept. All subscales contain six items, and each item is coded near a score of 1-4; be going to scores are computed beside lower scores reflecting greater perceived competence. In this study, the Global Self-Worth subscale be included as a measure of adolescents' standard self-esteem. Harter (1988) reported good internal consistency for these subscales (Cronbach's range from .74 to .93), as well as considerable support for the rightfulness of these subscales. Internal consistency in the current indication was so-so, [alpha] = .82.
Friendship Perception
Participants completed subscales from the Network of Relationships Inventory (NRI; Furman, 1998) to examine adolescents' perceived friendship quality. The NRI assesses several domains of positive and distrustful friendship quality (e.g., criticism, companionship, conflict, turbulent support, nurturance, reliable alliance, etc.). Past research among adults suggests that depression relapse is associated specifically with the perception that others are critical of them (Hooley & Teasdale, 1989). Accordingly, this study utilized the three-item friendship criticism subscale of the NRI ("How recurrently does this person point out your fault or put you down?", "How often does this personage criticize you?", and "How often does this individual say tight-fisted or harsh things to you?"), beside alphas equal to .75 at Time 1 and .77 at Time 2. The NRI is widely regarded as a valid and reliable index of adolescents' friendship perception (Furman, 1998).
Peer Acceptance/Rejection
A sociometric peer nomination assessment was conducted to search out a measure of adolescents' peer acceptance/rejection. Adolescents contained by this school be organized in researcher teams, respectively roughly twice the size of a traditional academic classroom. Adolescents respectively were presented beside an alphabetized roster of their academic teammates, and asked to select an unlimited number of peers that they "like the most," and "liked the most minuscule." The order of alphabetized name on this roster was counterbalanced (e.g., Z through A) to control for possible effects of alphabetization on nominee screening. A sum of the number of nominations respectively child received for each item be computed and standardized within respectively academic squad. A difference score between standardized "resembling most" and "like least" nomination was later computed and restandardized for a measure of social nouns, with high scores indicating greater peer embracing and lower scores indicating greater peer rejection (Coie & Dodge, 1983). Using this procedure it be possible to obtain an ecologically-valid index of peer acceptance/rejection that was not influenced by adolescents' self-report. Data from sociometric nomination are widely considered the most reliable and valid indices of acceptance and rejection among peers (Coie & Dodge, 1983).
Data Analysis Plan
In instruct to evaluate study hypotheses, a two-fold data analytic plan be undertaken. First, a series of hierarchical multiple regressions be utilized to examine specific hypotheses. In these analyses, we were interested in evaluating femininity and grade as potential moderators, as very well as three-way interactions (gender x grade x predictor). A causeway analysis next be conducted to examine hypotheses simultaneously, while controlling for all revealed associations.
RESULTS
Descriptive Statistics
Table I includes finances and standard deviations for all primary study variables. t-Tests revealed a significant femininity difference in adolescents' reports of friendship criticism at Time 2, such that boys reported complex levels of best friends' criticism than did girls. No other significant masculinity differences were revealed.
Correlations also be computed to examine bivariate associations between study variables and stability over time (see Table II). Results suggested that higher level of adolescents' negative feedback-seeking be significantly associated with highly developed levels of adolescents' depressive symptoms, social anxiety, and perception of friendship criticism. Significant associations between adolescents' depressive symptoms and social anxiety also were revealed. Correlations over time revealed moderate to glorious stability for each of the primary variables.
Preliminary Analyses: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses initially be conducted to examine hypothesized longitudinal associations. An initial hypothesis examined depressive symptoms as a prospective predictor of adolescents' negative feedback-seeking. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis be conducted using adolescents' negative feedback-seeking at Time 2 as a criterion unfixed. After controlling for Time 1 negative feedback on an initial step, [R.sup.2] = .15, p < .001, sexual category, global self-worth, and social anxiety be entered on a second step [DELTA][R.sup.2] = .05, p < .001, and Time 1 depressive symptoms be entered on a third step [DELTA][R.sup.2] = .01, p < .01. Results revealed novel effects for both higher level of social anxiety, [beta] = 0.13, p < .01, and depressive symptoms, [beta] = 0.16, p < .001, as prospective predictors of higher level of negative feedback-seeking over time. Analyses of two- and three-way interactions involving masculinity and grade revealed no significant effects.
A second study hypothesis pertained to the reciprocal, longitudinal association suggesting that denial feedback-seeking would be associated with depressive symptoms over time. A second hierarchical multiple regression be conducted using Time 2 depressive symptoms as a dependent variable. After controlling for Time 1 depressive symptoms on an initial step, [R.sup.2] = .47, p < .001, femininity, global self-worth, and social anxiety on a second step, [DELTA][R.sup.2] = .01, p < .05, and Time 1 glum feedback-seeking on a third step, [DELTA][R.sup.2] = .01, p < .05, results revealed significant unique effects for highly developed levels of social anxiety, [beta] = 0.09, p < .05, and unenthusiastic feedback-seeking, [beta] = 0.09, p < .05, as prospective predictors of higher level of depressive symptoms over time. Again, no interaction effects for gender, level, or grade x femininity were revealed.
A final hypothesis pertained to gloomy feedback-seeking as a longitudinal predictor of adolescents' peer relations, including their perceptions of friendship criticism and their acceptance/rejection among peers. This hypothesis be examined in two hierarchical regression models similar to those described above. In each model, the Time 2 method of peer relations (i.e., peer acceptance/rejection or perceived friendship criticism) was enter as a criterion variable, the corresponding Time 1 peer relations adjustable was enter on an initial step, followed by covariates (i.e., gender, worldwide self-worth, social anxiety, and depressive symptoms) on a second step, and negative feedback-seeking on a third step. For the longitudinal prediction of friendship criticism, the second step of predictors, [DELTA][R.sup.2] = .02, ns, did not explain a significant proportion of variance beyond initial level of friendship criticism, [R.sup.2] = .05, p < .001. The addition of glum feedback-seeking did offer a significant contribution to the model, however, [DELTA][R.sup.2] = .01, p < .05, indicating that high levels of this behavior be associated with increases in perception of criticism, [beta] = 0.11, p < .05. For the prediction of peer acceptance/rejection, only difficult levels of social anxiety, [beta] = -0.14, p < .05 be significantly associated with lower level of social preference (i.e., indicating peer rejection) over time. No sexual category or grade interaction effects be revealed.
Path Analyses
To examine the hypothesized associations more stringently while accounting for co-variation across both predictors and outcomes, and multiple observed associations, path analyses be conducted using full information maximum likelihood as implement in Amos altered copy 5.0.1 (Arbuckle, 1999). A multiple-group (by gender) initial path analysis included adjectives six observed primary variables in the study (negative feedback-seeking, depressive symptoms, social anxiety, worldwide self-worth, friendship criticism, and peer acceptance/rejection) at both Time 1 and Time 2, with autoregressive path estimated for each between Times 1 and 2. Paths also be included for each hypothesized association, including the prediction of Time 2 unenthusiastic feedback-seeking from Time 1 depressive symptoms, social anxiety, and global self-worth; the prediction of depressive symptoms from social anxiety and distrustful feedback-seeking; and the prediction of both friendship criticism and peer acceptance/rejection from negative feedback-seeking. All exogenous variables be allowed to covary. In concordance with departed theory and research as in good health as results from correlation analyses, residual variance terms from Time 2, social anxiety and depressive symptoms also be allowed to covary. Because there be a theoretical justification to predict different patterns of associations across sexual category for each tested track, a multiple group analysis initially was conducted to let go separate, freely-varying estimates for boys and girls.
Satisfactory fit was revealed for this initial model, [chi square](74) = 166.85, p < .001; [chi square]/df = 2.26; NFI = 0.91, CFI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.04. Several modifications, respectively consistent with premise, were made to raise model fit. Improvement in the model be examined for each modification using a chi-square difference exam. The residual term from Time 2 refusal feedback-seeking was allowed to covary next to residual terms for Time 2 depressive symptoms, [chi square] difference (2) = 28.9, p < .0001, and worldwide self-worth, [chi square] difference (2) = 9.2, p < .01. Residual terms also be allowed to covary between depressive symptoms and global self-worth, [chi square] difference (2) = 9.4, p < .01, between depressive symptoms and friendship criticism, [chi square] difference (2) = 6.1, p < .05, and between social anxiety and friendship criticism, [chi square] difference (2) = 9.1, p < .01. In an action to achieve a more parsimonious model, individual path also were systemically constrained across sexual characteristics, and chi-square difference tests be conducted for each model to determine whether the estimation of fixed narrow road coefficients for boys and girls significantly improved model fit. In no cases be the model fit significantly different with fixed path as compared to freely-varying paths; thus, adjectives freely-estimated paths be retained.
Figure 1 displays the standardized estimates for statistically significant effects within this final bridleway model. The modified model was a okay fit to the data, [chi square] (64) = 105.21, p = .001; [chi square]/df = 1.64; NFI = 0.94, CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.03. Results revealed that among girls, Time 1 gloomy feedback-seeking was a significant predictor of Time 2 friendship criticism and depressive symptoms after accounting for its covariation beside other exogenous predictors. Depressive symptoms, social anxiety, and global-self-worth were not significant longitudinal predictors of girls' denial feedback-seeking, however. Among boys, statistically significant paths revealed a marginally significant association between giant levels of Time 1 glum feedback-seeking and low levels of Time 2 social nouns (i.e., indicating peer rejection), p = .06, as well as a marginally significant association between Time 1 social anxiety and Time 2 unenthusiastic feedback-seeking, p = .06. Time 1 social anxiety also was a statistically significant predictor of boys' Time 2 depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms and worldwide self-worth were not significant longitudinal predictors of boys' distrustful feedback-seeking.
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DISCUSSION
Interpersonal theories of depression suggest that some individuals engage contained by specific behaviors that can perpetuate depressive symptoms (e.g., Coyne, 1976; Hammen, 1991). To date, these design have be examined far more frequently among adults than youth. This study examined whether adolescents' negative feedback-seeking behavior be relevant to depressive symptoms and might be associated with adolescents' peer experiences.
Results offered mixed support of study hypotheses. An initial prediction pertained to the determinants of refusal feedback-seeking. Consistent with self-verification supposition, it was expected that adolescents' depressive symptoms would be associated beside a tendency to wish negative feedback from peers, reflecting a desire to receive information to be precise consistent with a unenthusiastic self-concept and/or depressed mood. However, the examination of a footprints model, controlling for the effects of all variables, indicated that depressive symptoms do not prospectively predict unenthusiastic feedback-seeking within any gender. Rather, findings indicated that among boys, cynical feedback-seeking was predicted with the sole purpose by social anxiety symptoms. Although this finding contrasts with preliminary work in connection with the symptom specificity of negative feedback-seeking (e.g., Joiner et al., 1997), it is prominent to note that our results specifically underscore the role of social anxiety, rather than anxiety symptoms defined more broadly. In the context of growing evidence suggesting similarities in the presentation and mechanism between social anxiety and depressive symptoms (Lahey et al., 2004), these findings offer an esteemed contribution to the understanding of interpersonal mechanism that may explain the evolution of negative appraisal fears to depressed mood.
Findings about negative feedback-seeking as a predictor of depressive symptoms be consistent with prior work (Cassidy et al., 2003; Joiner et al., 1997); however, the results from this study are the first to suggest that this association may be most relevant for girls. Notably, the significant results for girls remained even after controlling for adolescents' symptoms of social anxiety and low self-esteem, suggesting that unenthusiastic feedback-seeking may be a unique predictor of girls' depressive symptoms (Kovacs, 1996; Reinherz et al., 1989; Rohde et al., 1991). Given girls' greater vulnerability to depressive symptoms and cognitions at this developmental length (Hankin & Abramson, 2001), as well girls' stronger relational position and greater reactivity to interpersonal stressors as compared to boys (Cyranowski, Frank, Young, & Shear, 2000; Rudolph & Hammen, 1999), it was anticipated that glum feedback-seeking would be an interpersonal behavior more frequent among girls and more relevant to their depressive symptoms. Findings indicated that while reports of negative feedback-seeking be no more frequent among girls, as has be reported in prior work (Cassidy et al., 2003; Joiner et al., 1997), it is simply among girls that this interpersonal behavior prospectively predicts depressive symptoms.
In addition to the potential ardent consequences of negative feedback-seeking, this study also examined associations near peer relations, including adolescents' reports of friendship criticism and peers' reports of peer acceptance/rejection. The examination of associations between glum feedback-seeking and peer relations offers a preliminary opportunity to simplify potential effects of individuals' behavior on their social environment. Consistent with a stress-generation model of depression (Hammen, 1991; Rudolph, 2002), which postulates that the interpersonal behavior of depressed individuals may ironically reify and confirm cynical beliefs and fears about the social environment, results indicated that cynical feedback-seeking was associated longitudinally next to higher level of perceived criticism from best friends among girls, and lower levels of peer-reported social nouns among boys. Findings differ based on informant, and that`s why should be interpreted cautiously. However, it is interesting to document that results generally suggest that denial feedback-seeking is specifically related to aspects of peer relationships that are most relevant for each femininity; adolescent girls are mainly attuned to dyadic peer experiences whereas boys remain oriented to group-level peer relations. Importantly, both perception of criticism (Hooley & Teasdale, 1989) and lower levels of social approval (Panak & Garber, 1992) may offer risk for worsening of depressive symptoms.
Overall, results offered essential preliminary evidence consistent with an interpersonal model of depression among adolescents. Findings may be adjectives for understanding the contribution of social behaviors contained by the development or running of depression during the critical developmental period associated near increased prevalence. However, several unanticipated findings also emerged and some substantial caveats deserve consideration.
For instance, it should be noted that although reported findings reach statistical significance, the size of effects for negative feedback-seeking be quite modest. This may be due to several factor. Most strikingly, results revealed high stability of depressive symptoms across the two time points of this study, thus substantially reducing the proportion of unexplained volatility in Time 2 depressive symptoms after controlling for initial level. Second, to remain consistent with prior investigations (e.g., Joiner et al., 1997), glum feedback-seeking was examined using an established assessment instrument trim to produce results that could be directly compared to those found in prior investigations (e.g., Joiner et al., 1997) near youth and the accumulating body of research on distrustful feedback-seeking in adults; however, this measure have some important limitations. An instrument examining distrustful feedback-seeking behavior among significant others (e.g., parents, teachers) in addition to peers, or assessing a broader array of self-concept domains using multiple items for respectively, might reveal associations larger in vastness (e.g., Cassidy et al., 2003).
Third, it also is important to minute that negative feedback-seeking be examined as a sole interpersonal predictor; however, this behavior likely occur in the context of several more depression-related interpersonal behaviors that may offer incremental contributions in the prediction of depression (Prinstein, Borelli, Cheah, Simon, & Aikins, 2005). The actual frequency and contribution of refusal feedback-seeking alone indeed may be relatively modest. Some have suggested that unenthusiastic feedback-seeking behavior may be observed in the context of additional interpersonal behaviors (including positive feedback-seeking) in a carriage that is significantly more complex than demonstrated within this initial longitudinal study among adolescents (Alloy & Lipman, 1992; Hooley & Richters, 1992). Lastly, this study included a community sample of adolescents to takeover the onset of the depression-interpersonal rejection cycle; however, stronger effects may emerge when examining a taster with clinically significant level of depressive symptoms. The use of a community-based sample also might explain the fantasy of gender differences reaching statistical significance in the overall prevalence of depressive symptoms.
Future research would benefit by address these limitations as well as some other substantial avenues for exploration. For instance, it would be useful to examine the effects of denial feedback-seeking on interpersonal functioning from additional perspective (e.g., self- and other-report), including the individuals from whom negative feedback is sought. This approach might reveal historic moderators of the association between seeking-behavior and seekers' subsequent emotional responses (i.e., depressed affect), as capably as possible misperceptions of subsequent relationship quality. There is suitable reason to suspect that depressed individuals' perception of the quality of their best friendship might be erroneous (Daley & Hammen, 2002) but detrimental nevertheless.
In addition, the current study employed a relatively homogenous taste of middle school children. Future research could contribute to the study of gloomy feedback-seeking and its interpersonal sequelae by employing more diverse sample as well as studying the relation among these variables during different developmental stages. Cultural studies of the manifestation of denial feedback-seeking behavior within peer groups of adolescents of varying demographic background also would be an interesting future direction for this column of research.
Lastly, future research using more than two time points would oblige to examine possible mediator or iterative models demonstrating longitudinal transactions between individuals' behavior and their interpersonal experiences.
Overall, findings from this study bestow an important preliminary validation of interpersonal theories of depression as applied to youth, and an evaluation of several abstractly stringent predictions. Negative feedback-seeking may be one of many interpersonal behaviors that are exhibited more frequently among depressed or anxious adolescents that organize to exacerbations of depressed symptoms and negative peer relations. Findings are consistent near both self-verification and stress-generation theories of depression and provide an important avenue for cognitive-behavioral interventions, including skills training and restructuring.
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